Problem-based learning

 

A PBL group at Sydney Dental Hospital

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject in the context of complex, multifaceted, and realistic problems (not to be confused with project-based learning). The goals of PBL are to help the students develop flexible knowledge, effective problem solving skills, self-directed learning, effective collaboration skills and intrinsic motivation. Working in groups, students identify what they already know, what they need to know, and how and where to access new information that may lead to resolution of the problem. The role of the instructor (known as the tutor in PBL) is that of facilitator of learning who provides appropriate scaffolding and support of the process, modelling of the process, and monitoring the learning. The tutor must build students confidence to take on the problem, encourage the student, while also stretching their understanding.

PBL was pioneered in the medical school program at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada in the late 1960s by Howard Barrows and his colleagues. The PBL curriculum was developed in order to stimulate the learners, assist the learners in seeing the relevance of learning to future roles, maintain a higher level of motivation towards learning, and to show the learners the importance of responsible, professional attitudes (Barrows, 1996).

Problem-Based Learning subsequently has been adopted by other medical school programs (Barrows, 1996), adapted for undergraduate instruction (Boud and Feletti, 1997; Duch et al., 2001; Amador et al., 2006) as well as elementary and high school (Barrows, 1996; Gasser, 2011). The use of PBL has expanded from its initial introduction into medical school programs to include education in the areas of other health sciences, math, law, education, economics, business, social studies, and engineering (Barrows 1996; Gasser, 2011). The use of PBL, like other student-centered pedagogies, has been motivated by recognition of the failures of traditional instruction (Wingspread, 1994; Boyer, 1998) and the emergence of deeper understandings of how people learn (National Research Council, 2000). Unlike traditional instruction, PBL actively engages the student in constructing knowledge. PBL includes problems that can be solved in many different ways and have more than one solution. A good problem is authentic, meets students level of prior knowledge, engages students in discussion, and is interesting.

The Six core characteristics of problem based learning:

-consists of student-centred learning

-learning occurs in small groups

-teachers act as facilitators or guides (referred to as tutors)

-a problem forms the basis for organized focus and stimulus for learning

-problems stimulate the development and use of problem solving skills

-new knowledge is obtained through means of self-directed learning

In PBL, students are encouraged to take responsibility for their group and organize and direct the learning process with support from a tutor or instructor. Advocates of PBL claim it can be used to enhance content knowledge while simultaneously fostering the development of communication, problem-solving, critical thinking, collaboration, and self-directed learning skills.

PBL may position students in a simulated real world working and professional context which involves policy, process, and ethical problems that will need to be understood and resolved to some outcome. By working through a combination of learning strategies to discover the nature of a problem, understanding the constraints and options to its resolution, defining the input variables, and understanding the viewpoints involved, students learn to negotiate the complex sociological nature of the problem and how competing resolutions may inform decision-making.

Schmidt (1983) describes the process of Problem-based learning as being seven steps:

- clarifying and agreeing on terms and concepts that are unclear

- define the problem and review terms which need more depth or explanation

- analyze, brainstorm and create potential hypothesis

- discuss, evaluate and organize possible explanations into potential hypothesis

- generate and prioritize learning objectives, divide research workload

- private study time to research objectives

- during next tutorial report back gained information, create an explanation and synthesize new information in relation to the problem

Evidence supporting problem-based learning

Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn cite several studies supporting the success of the constructivist problem-based and inquiry learning methods. For example, they describe a project called GenScope, an inquiry-based science software application. Students using the GenScope software showed significant gains over the control groups, with the largest gains shown in students from basic courses.

Hmelo-Silver et al. also cite a large study by Geier on the effectiveness of inquiry-based science for middle school students, as demonstrated by their performance on high-stakes standardized tests. The improvement was 14% for the first cohort of students and 13% for the second cohort. This study also found that inquiry-based teaching methods greatly reduced the achievement gap for African-American students.

A systematic review of the effects of problem-based learning in medical school on the performance of doctors after graduation showed clear positive effects on physician competence. This effect was especially strong for social and cognitive competencies such as coping with uncertainty and communication skills.

Cotič and Zuljan (2009) identified a need for improvement in Slovene students problem solving abilities. They conducted a study that aimed to answer if students who learn with PBL are better at solving problems and if their attitudes improved towards mathematics through engagement in the PBL model. Their study found that students who were exposed to PBL were better at solving more difficult problems but there was no significant difference in student attitude towards mathematics.

Examples of applying Problem-Based Learning pedagogy to curriculum

In Malaysia, an attempt is being made to introduce a problem-based learning model in secondary mathematics called PBL4C, which stands for problem-based learning the four core areas. These core areas are multidisciplinary content knowledge, multidimensional skills, appropriate thoughts, & universal harmonious values, with the aim of nurturing wise citizens who are responsible in decision-making for sustainable and responsible development, emphasizing on mathematics content. This model first sprouted in SEAMEO RECSAM in 2008, and a paper, as a result of training courses conducted was presented at the EARCOME5 conference in 2010, followed by two papers during the 15th UNESCO-APEID conference in 2011. Following to that at tertiary level, many Malaysian universities are going for PBL purposely to improve the quality of the graduates produced. In collaboration with Aalborg University of Denmark, PBL was introduced at University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM). Since then the PBL was widely used among engineering and as well as humanities lecturers at UTHM (Berhannudin, 2007).

Several medical schools have incorporated problem-based learning into their curricula, using real patient cases to teach students how to think like a clinician. More than eighty percent of medical schools in the United States now have some form of problem-based learning in their programs. Research of 10 years of data from the University of Missouri Medical School PBL curriculum supports PBL (Koh et al., 2008).

Maastricht University offers its whole program in PBL format only, as does the University of Limerick Graduate entry medical school in Ireland.

In 2004, the Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine founded a branch campus in Bradenton, Florida, utilizing an entirely PBL format. From 2006-2010, this campus led the nation in COMLEX scores.

In 2002, Gadjah Mada University of Yogyakarta, Indonesia began offering an International Medicine program based on problem-based learning.

In 2008, Parramatta Marist High School a Secondary Catholic School in Australia employed the methods of PBL in their teaching for Year 9 and 10 boys. The learning system was a great success and since has been expanded to lower grades to challenge students to think outside of the box and relate content drive courses to problems in the real world.

Constructivism and PBL

PBL follows a constructivist perspective in learning as the role of the instructor is to guide and challenge the learning process rather than strictly providing knowledge (Dolmans et al., 2005; Hmelo-Silver & Barrows, 2006). From this perspective, feedback and reflection on the learning process and group dynamics are essential components of PBL. Students are considered to be active agents who engage in social knowledge construction. PBL assists in processes of creating meaning and building personal interpretations of the world based on experiences and interactions. PBL assists to guide the student from theory to practice during their journey through solving the problem (Edens, 2000).

Criticisms of Problem-based learning

Problem-based learning and cognitive load

Sweller and others have published a series of studies over the past twenty years that is relevant to problem-based learning but concerning cognitive load and what they describe as the guidance-fading effect (Sweller, 2006). Sweller, et al. conducted several classroom-based studies with students studying algebra problems (Sweller, 1988). These studies have shown that active problem solving early in the learning process, is a less effective instructional strategy than studying worked examples (Sweller and Cooper, 1985; Cooper and Sweller, 1987). Certainly active problem solving is useful as learners become more competent, and better able to deal with their working memory limitations. But early in the learning process, learners may find it difficult to process a large amount of information in a short amount of time. Thus the rigors of active problem solving may become an issue for novices. Once learners gain expertise the scaffolding inherent in problem-based learning helps learners avoid these issues. These studies have however been conducted largely based on individual problem solving of well-defined problems.

Sweller (1988) proposed cognitive load theory to explain how novices react to problem solving during the early stages of learning. Sweller, et al. suggests a worked example early, and then a gradual introduction of problems to be solved. They propose other forms of learning early in the learning process (worked example, goal free problems, etc.); to later be replaced by completions problems, with the eventual goal of solving problems on their own (Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998). This problem based learning becomes very useful later in the learning process.

Many forms of scaffolding have been implemented in problem based learning to reduce the cognitive load of learners. These are most useful to fade guidance during problem solving. As an example, consider the fading effect helps learners to slowly transit from studying examples to solving problems. In this case backwards fading was found to be quite effective and assisting in decreasing the cognitive load on learners (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2004).

Evaluation of the effects of PBL learning in comparison to traditional instructional learning have proved to be a challenge. Various factors can influence the implementation of PBL: extent of PBL incorporation into curriculum, group dynamics, nature of problems used, facilitator influence on group, and the motivation of the learners. There are also various outcomes of PBL that can be measured including knowledge acquisition and clinical competence (Schmidt & Moust, 2000; Neville, 2009). Additional studies are needed to investigate all the variables (Neville, 2009) and technological scaffolds(Henry, Tawfik, Jonassen, Khanna and Winholtz, 2012) that may impact the efficacy PBL.

Cognitive effects of problem-based learning

The acquisition and structuring of knowledge in PBL is thought to work through the following cognitive effects (Schmidt, 1993):

• initial analysis of the problem and activation of prior knowledge through small-group discussion
• elaboration on prior knowledge and active processing of new information
• restructuring of knowledge, construction of a semantic network
• social knowledge construction
• learning in context
• stimulation of curiosity related to presentation of a relevant problem

Other outcomes of problem-based learning

One of the aims of PBL is the development of self-directed learning (SDL) skills. In Loyens, Magda & Rikers' discussion (2008), SDL is defined as "a process in which individuals take the initiative…in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating goals, identifying human and material resources, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes." By being invited into the learning process, students are also invited to take responsibility for their learning, which leads to an increase in self-directed learning skills. In Severiens and Schmidt’s study of 305 first year college students, they found that PBL and its focus on SDL led to motivation for students to maintain study pace, led to social and academic integration, encouraged development of cognitive skills, and fostered more study progress then students in a conventional learning setting (2009). PBL encourages learners to take a place in the academic world through inquiring and discovery that is central to problem-based learning.

PBL is also argued as a learning method that can promote the development of critical thinking skills. In PBL learning, students learn how to analyze a problem, identify relevant facts and generate hypotheses, identify necessary information/knowledge for solving the problem and make reasonable judgments about solving the problem.

Employers have appreciated the positive attributes of communication, teamwork, respect and collaboration that PBL experienced students have developed. These skills provide for better future skills preparation in the ever-changing information explosion. PBL curriculum includes building these attributes through knowledge building, written and interpersonal interactions and through the experience of the problem solving process (Major & Palmer, 2001; Vardi & Ciccarelli, 2008).

References

• Amador, J.A., Miles, L., & Peters, C.B. (2006). The Practice of Problem-Based Learning: A Guide to Implementing PBL in the College Classroom.. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
• Armstrong E. (1991). A hybrid model of problem-based learning. In: Boud D and Feletti G (eds). The challenge of problem-based learning. London: Kogan Page.
• Barr RD & Tagg J (1995). From teaching to learning - a new paradigm for undergraduate education. Change, Nov/Dec,13-25
• Barrett, T. (2010). The problem-based learning process as finding and being in flow. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 47(2), 165-174. doi:10.1080/14703291003718901
• Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. In Wilkerson, L, & Gijselaers, W.H. (Eds.). New directions for teaching and learning, vol. 68. Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice, pp. 3–13. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Boud, D., & Feletti, G.I. (Eds.) (1997). The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning, 2nd Ed. London: Kogan Page.
• Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research University for the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. (1998). Reinventing Undergraduate Education: A Blueprint for America's Research Universities. URL: http://notes.cc.sunysb.edu/Pres/boyer.nsf.
• Cotič, M., & Zuljan, M. (2009). Problem-based instruction in mathematics and its impact on the cognitive results of the students and on affective-motivational aspects. Educational Studies (03055698), 35(3), 297-310. doi:10.1080/03055690802648085
• Dolmans, D.H.J.M, De Grave, W., Wolfhagenm I.H.A.P., van der Vleuten, C.P.M. (2005). Problem-based learning: future challenges for educational practice and research. Medical Education, 39,732–741.
• Duch, B.J., Groh, S.E., & Allen, D.E. (Eds.) (2001). The Power of Problem-Based Learning, Sterling, VA: Stylus.
• Edens, K.M. (2000). Preparing Problem Solvers for the 21st Century through Problem-Based Learning, College Teaching, 48(2),55-60
• Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). "Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn?". Educational Psychology Review 16 (3): 235–266. DOI:10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3. 
• Gasser, K.W. (2011). Five Ideas for 21st Century Math Classrooms. American Secondary Education, 39(3),108-116
• Henry, Holly R.; Tawfik, Andrew A.; Jonassen, David H.; Winholtz, Robert A.; and Khanna, Sanjeev (2012) ""I Know This is Supposed to be More Like the Real World, But . . .": Student Perceptions of a PBL Implementation in an Undergraduate Materials Science Course," Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning: Vol. 6: Iss. 1, Article 5. Available at: http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/ijpbl/vol6/iss1/5
• Hmelo-Silver, C. E. & Barrows, H. S. (2006). Goals and strategies of a problem-based learning facilitator. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1, 21-39.
• Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., and Clark, R. E. (2006) Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2),75-86
• Koh GC-H, Khoo HE, Wong ML, Koh D. (2008). The Effects of Problem-based learning during medical school on physician competency: a systematic review. CMAJ, 178(1),34-41.
• Loyens, S., Magda, J., & Rikers, R. (2008). Self-Directed Learning in Problem-Based Learning and its Relationships with Self-Regulated Learning. Educational Psychology Review, 20(4), 411-427.
• Major, C.H. & Palmer, B. (2001). Assessing the Effectiveness of Problem‑Based Learning in Higher Education: Lessons from the Literature. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 5(1), 4.
• National Research Council (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
• Severiens, S., & Schmidt, H. (2009). Academic and social integration and study progress in problem based learning. Higher Education, 58(1), 59-69.
• Merrill, M.D. (2002). "A pebble-in-the-pond model for instructional design". Performance Improvement 41 (7): 39–44. DOI:10.1002/pfi.4140410709. http://www.ispi.org/pdf/Merrill.pdf. 
• Schmidt HG (1993). "Foundations of problem-based learning: some explanatory notes". Medical Education 27 (5): 422–432. DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2923.1993.tb00296.x. PMID 8208146. 
• Schmidt, H.G. (1983). Problem-based learning rationale and description. Medical Education. 17, 11-16
• Schmidt, H.G. & Moust, J.H.C. (2000). Factors affecting small-group tutorial learning: A review of research. In Evenson, D.H. & Hmelo, C.E. (Eds.). Problem-based Learning: A Research perspective on learning interactions, 19-51.
• Sweller, J. (1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning". Cognitive Science 12 (2): 257–285. DOI:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7. 
• Sweller, J. (2006). "The worked example effect and human cognition". Learning and Instruction 16 (2): 165–169. DOI:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.02.005. 
• Sweller, J., Van Merriënboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). "Cognitive architecture and instructional design". Educational Psychology Review 10 (3): 251–296. DOI:10.1023/A:1022193728205. 
• Vardi, I & Ciccarelli, M. (2008). Overcoming problems in problem-based learning: a trial of strategies in an undergraduate unit. Innovations in Education and Teaching International. 45(4), 345–354
• Wingspread Conference. (1994). Quality Assurance in Undergraduate Education: What the Public Expects. Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States.

External links

• PBL at Queen Mary, University of London, Materials Department (SEMS)
• An introduction to PBL, resources, criticism, links
• Problem-based Learning at the University of Delaware
• PBL Directory
• PBL at Maastricht University
• Interdisciplinary Journal of PBL at Purdue
• Penn State's PBL Site
• West Virginia School of Osteopathic Medicine's PBL site
• Problem Based Learning for College Physics (CCDMD)
• Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy's Problem Based Learning Network (PBLN)

See also

• Discovery learning
• project-based learning
• Knowledge Building
• Educational psychology
• Inquiry-based learning
• Learning by teaching (LdL)
• Active learning
• McMaster University
• Collaborative learning
• Minnesota State University, Mankato Masters Degree in Experiential Education