"Models, like myths and metaphors, help us to make sense of our world. Whether derived from whim or from serious research, a model offers its user a means of comprehending an otherwise incomprehensible problem. An instructional design model gives structure and meaning to an I.D. problem, enabling the would-be designer to negotiate her design task with a semblance of conscious understanding. Models help us to visualize the problem, to break it down into discrete, manageable units. The value of a specific model is determined within the context of use. Like any other instrument, a model assumes a specific intention of its user. A model should be judged by how it mediates the designer's intention, how well it can share a work load, and how effectively it shifts focus away from itself toward the object of the design activity."
-Martin Ryder
University of Colorado
There have been multiple instructional design models that have been developed and implemented over the years. Below are just a few of today's most commonly applied and practiced instructional design models, theories, and methodologies:
Many current instructional design models suggest that the most effective learning environments are those that are problem-based and involve the student in four distinct phases of learning: (1) activation of prior experience, (2) demonstration of skills, (3) application of skills, and (4) integration or these skills into real world activities. Figure 2 below illustrates these five ideas. Much instructional practice concentrates primarily on phase 2 and ignores the other phases in this cycle of learning.
Figure 2 First Principles of Instruction Diagram
At the top level the instructional design prescriptions based on first principles are as follows:
Learning is facilitated when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems.
Learning is facilitated when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge.
Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.
Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is applied by the learner
Learning is facilitated when new knowledge is integrated into the learner's world.
The ADDIE instructional design model is the generic process traditionally used by instructional designers and training developers. The five phases—Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation—represent a dynamic, flexible guideline for building effective training and performance support tools.
Analysis In the analysis phase, the instructional problem is clarified, the instructional goals and objectives are established and the learning environment and learner's existing knowledge and skills are identified.
Design The design phase deals with learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, content, subject matter analysis, lesson planning and media selection. The design phase should be systematic and specific.
Development The development phase is where instructional designers and developers create and assemble the content assets that were blueprinted in the design phase. In this phase, storyboards are created, content is written and graphics are designed. If e learning is involved, programmers work to develop and/or integrate technologies.
Implementation During the implementation phase, a procedure for training the facilitators and the learners is developed. The facilitators' training should cover the course curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery, and testing procedures.
Evaluation The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative and summative. Formative evaluation is present in each stage of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists of tests designed for domain specific criterion-related referenced items and providing opportunities for feedback from the users which were identified.
It is an Instructional Systems Design (ISD) model. Most of the current instructional design models are spin-offs or variations of the ADDIE instructional design model; other models include the Dick & Carey and Kemp Instructional System Design (ISD) models. One commonly accepted improvement to this model is the use of rapid prototyping. This is the idea of receiving continual or formative feedback while instructional materials are being created. This model attempts to save time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. Figure 1 below illustrates the ADDIE model:
Figure 1 ADDIE Model, Diagram by: Steven J. McGriff,
Instructional Systems, College of Education, Penn State University
Kemp's Instructional Design Model
The Jerold Kemp instructional design method and model defines nine different components of an instructional design and at the same time adopts a continuous implementation/evaluation model.
Kemp adopts a wide view, the oval shape of his model conveys that the design and development process is a continuous cycle that requires constant planning, design, development and assessment to insure effective instruction. The model is systemic and nonlinear and seems to encourage designers to work in all areas as appropriate (Steven McGriff).
The model is particularly useful for developing instructional programs that blend technology, pedagogy and content to deliver effective, inclusive (reliable) and efficient learning.
According to McGriff, Kemp identifies nine key elements:
Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instructional program.
Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning.
Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and purposes.
State instructional objectives for the learner.
Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning.
Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.
Plan the instructional message and delivery.
Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.
Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.
Figure 3 below illustrates the Kemp instructional design model:
Figure 3 Kemp Instructional Design Model
Gagne's 9 Events of Instruction
Robert Gagne is considered to be the foremost contributor to the systematic approach to instructional design and training. Gagne and his followers are known as behaviorists, and their focus is on the outcomes (or behaviors) resulting from training.
Gagne's book, The Conditions of Learning, identified the mental conditions for learning. Gagne created a nine-step process called the events of instruction, which correlate to and address the conditions of learning. See the nine events of instruction below:
In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational
psychologists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important
in learning. Bloom found that over 95 % of the test questions students encounter require
them to think only at the lowest possible level...the recall of information.
Bloom
identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition
of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental
levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation. Verb examples that
represent intellectual activity on each level are listed here.
Donald L Kirkpatrick, Professor Emeritus, University Of Wisconsin (where he achieved his BBA, MBA and PhD), first published his ideas in 1959, in a series of articles in the Journal of American Society of Training Directors. The articles were subsequently included in Kirkpatrick's book Evaluating Training Programs (originally published in 1994; now in its 3rd edition - Berrett-Koehler Publishers).
Donald Kirkpatrick's 1994 book Evaluating Training Programs defined his originally published ideas of 1959, thereby further increasing awareness of them, so that his theory has now become arguably the most widely used and popular model for the evaluation of training and learning. Kirkpatrick's four-level model is now considered an industry standard across the HR and training communities.
The four levels of Kirkpatrick's evaluation model essentially measure:
REACTIONS-What they thought and felt about the training
LEARNING-The resulting increase in knowledge or capability
TRANSFER-Extent of behaviour and capability improvement and implementation/application
RESULTS-The effects on the business or environment resulting from the trainee's performance
All these measures are recommended for full and meaningful evaluation of learning in organizations, although their application broadly increases in complexity, and usually cost, through the levels from level 1-4.
Figure 5 Kirkpatrick's 4 Levels of Training Evaluation
