Censorship and the Index

CENSORSHIP AND THE INDEX

Beginnings of Censorship in Italy

While the Vatican had throughout history banned certain texts because of their disagreement with the Church, the problem was never a terribly serious one: the vast majority of the members of the Church were illiterate. With the advent of the printing press and the pressure of Protestantism which heavily utilized the press, the Church began to take on a more defensive stance. In 1542, Bernardino Ochino, the head of the Capuchin Order, fled Italy and embraced Protestantism. Curione and Vermigi also left the church at this time. Ochino had been the most popular preacher in Italy at the time of his departure, and his flight caused much talk within (and outside of) the Church. Nearly as soon as he fled, Swiss presses began printing and exporting editions of Ochino's works, many of which found their way back into Italy. Fearing that Ochino's words would cause more losses to Protestantism, Pope Paul III banned the works of all three authors from Italy.
The Origins of the Index

By the time the Venetian republic drafted an Index of Forbidden Books and Authors in 1549, many other Italian states already had their own. Milan, Lucca and Siena were among those regulating the printing of books expressing opinions contrarty to those of the Church. Curiously enough, Rome did not have an Index at this time! This early Venetian Index was retired quickly, however, due to strong opposition by the bookmen (publishers, printers, importers, etc.) of Venice, who represented through their Guild a very strong political entity. Venice was generally a more intellectually liberal state than Rome, as it had strong interests in maintianing the trade of people of different beliefs from different parts of the world.
Early Life of the Index

Between 1553 and 1555, an Index from Rome was distributed to Florence and Venice. Between the displeasure of fiercely independent Venetians who saw the Index as Rome's attempt at annexing Venice (as they had seen Florence & Tuscany fall), and the anger of the bookmen who feared their livelihood being threatened, Venice once again rejected the new Index, which was quickly suspended by the Venetian Inquisition.
The Pauline Index

In 1559, Paul IV introduced the Pauline Index, a much more comprehensive document banning over 583 authors (although some were repeats due to the use of pseudonyms). This Pope knew better than to allow any room for disputation over the new Index: he made it clear from the beginning that this document was not up for discussion. The Pauline Index banned many northern european scientific texts not necessarily becuase they contained heretical views, but because their author was Protestant.
The Tridentine Index

After the last session of the Council of Trent had closed, the Congregation of the Index released another much more refined Tridentine Index in 1564. This Index, with modifications, would be the model for every Index to be released from this time. This Index spelled the end of the "free press" in all of Italy including liberal states like Venice, for some time. Naturally, there was a pretty extensive underground book trade in Protestant books during this time.
Procedure

The Congregation of the Index had a well-established procedure for distributing its works, and ensuring that their resrtictions were put into effect.
1. The Congregation of the Index meets, determines what works are heretical and what needs to be placed on or removed from the list.
2. The list (Index) is sent to local Inquisitors via Papal diplomatic channels.
3. The Inquisitor takes the list and shows it to the local booksellers and publishers. They then sign the back of the list, pledging not to publish anything mentioned on the list.

Example of Congregation of the Index Correspondence

The following translation quoted from _The Prosecution of Heresy_, John Tedeschi, is a good example of correspondence between Congregation members and local Inquisitors and Church administrators.


   Reverend Father.  These most illustrious and most reverend cardinal 
general inquisitors, my colleagues, deeming essential any diligence that 
can be exerted over printed material, as we learn from our experience ev-
ery day, have commissioned me to communicate this to your reverence.  
Be vigilant and apply every possible care, yourself and through learned,
zealous, and pious persons, in the censorship of books, booklets, and the
small histories which from day to day are printed there, so that they will
not contain prohibited things in line with the Rules of the Index.  And
do not issue permits to print them before they are examined with all pos-
sible accuracy.  Do not fail, then, to perform your duty and to pass on 
this communication to your officals in the towns where printing takes
place, asking them to preserve the originals which have been examined 
and passed on to the printers.  This will permit us to determine if any 
changes at all were made.  It should also be clearly stated who examined
 and gave his approval to the works printed.  By your unswerving obser-
vance of the present order you will be providing for the public good, and
no sort of indifference or neglect will be imputed to you.  In case of the
opposite, in addition to great dissatisfaction, there would also be the oc-
caison for resentment to the the detriment of your honor.
Rome, 29 April 1605.
Of your reverence, fraternally.
                                               The Cardinal Borghese

This letter shows that while the Congregation of the Index exhibited great zeal in its efforts to limit the printing of Protestant literature, this was not always shared by the local authorities in charge of implementing the policy.


   Most Reverend Father.  These illustrious lordships of the Congrega-
tion of the Index are astounded to see the negligence being shown in regard
to the printing of books, especially since they have written on so many
occaisons to employ every diligence and to keep vigilant.  In spite of this,
a Giardino de Madrigali by Maurito Moro, printed in Rimini has appeared,
which has been prohibited by express order of His Holiness because it 
contains many obscenities; and also a Praxi Episcopale by Monsignor
Thomasso Zerola, Bishop of Minori, printed in Venice.  Since it contains
some grievous errors, it is prohibited and is not to be sold or read until
its expurgations have been published.  Therefore your reverence shall not 
fail to promulgate the prohibitions of both books, exert greater vigilance
over the printing of new books as well as those which come from out-
side, and communicate what errors you discover in them.  I close by com-
mending myself to your prayers.
Rome, 20 December 1602.
Of your most reverend paternity, benevolently,
                                                The Cardinal of Terranova

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